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CRM programmes included a combination of information-based dissemination (i.e. presentation of information) and practice-based dissemination (i.e. role-playing and simulation) [53, 55, 58, 61, 62]. Information-based dissemination took two forms: one-way dissemination (i.e. dissemination of information without direct interaction) and two-way dissemination (i.e. dissemination of information in combination with direct interaction) [55, 58, 61, 62]. The two-way dissemination methods were divided into invitational and interactive methods [55]. Invitational methods were usually based on the use of posters, leaflets, and verbal information, whereas interactive dissemination methods required open discussion, physical contact, and feedback. Most CRM programmes consisted of a combination of educational information (i.e. theoretical information about the programme) and an experience-based information source (i.e. role-playing and simulation). Practice-based dissemination consisted of simulated situations to practice the non-technical skills. A combination of interactive and practice-based dissemination was used in all evaluated CRM programmes.
TeamSTEPPS is a training programme developed by the U.S. Department of Defense that focuses on teamwork in three domains: Team structure, Team processes (i.e. communication, situational awareness), and Team skills (i.e. leadership, task management, decision-making) [333].
TeamSTEPPS is a method-based training approach that targets behaviour, processes, and environment. The theoretical foundations for the approach originate from contingency theory and a human factors movement in the United States in the 1980s [71, 74]. The basic premise of TeamSTEPPS is that people on a team can only be successful if they work together and communicate as a team [136]. TeamSTEPPS is a systematic approach to teamwork training and consists of an assessment, an intervention, a follow-up and an evaluation. TeamSTEPPS involves six principles: (1) mutual trust and respect, (2) good team chemistry, (3) team effectiveness, (4) learning to learn, (5) team leader coaching, and (6) team member coaching [136]. TeamSTEPPS is a complex training approach that is supported by tools, e.g. a team charter with key words and phrases that can be used by team members in a variety of scenarios, a team briefing form to collect information about the situation, a team debriefing form to capture the information, and an action plan to prepare for the next team meeting. TeamSTEPPS focuses on the team as a whole rather than on individual performance [136]. It is one of the most widely used teamwork training methods worldwide [135, 137]. Although TeamSTEPPS primarily aims to improve teamwork skills and behaviours, it also includes information on the organisation, job design, and procedures to manage the team [135]. Several of the studies were based on (parts of) the TeamSTEPPS training manual [71, 73, 92]. 827ec27edc